Calf

Managing Vitamins and Minerals to Increase Calf Survival

Thu, 15 Jan 2026 21:31:03 GMT

Stillbirths and weak newborn calves are among the most frustrating outcomes in both beef and dairy systems. Calving difficulty, infectious disease and congenital defects are often investigated first, yet many cases end with no clear explanation. Even when calving appears normal, losses still occur leaving veterinarians and producers searching for answers after the fact.

Dr. Bob Van Saun, professor and Extension veterinarian at Penn State University, spoke on the importance of maternal nutrition and the placental transfer of vitamins and minerals on a recent episode of AABP’s “Have You Herd?” podcast.

What often goes unnoticed is the gestational environment that shaped the fetus long before calving began. Nutritional decisions made months earlier, particularly around vitamins and trace minerals, can quietly determine whether a calf is born resilient, compromised or nonviable. Rather than being isolated calving failures, some stillbirths might represent the final outcome of inadequate fetal preparation.

“If we don’t do what we need to do nutritionally for that pregnant animal, we could have very long-term effects not only on the reproductive success of the female, but also on the offspring,” Van Saun says.

Newborn Calves Enter the World Nutritionally Limited

Newborn calves, whether beef or dairy, arrive with a biological disadvantage: milk alone cannot meet their trace mineral and vitamin needs.

“We often tout milk as nature’s perfect food, and it certainly plays a very important role in the macro minerals and in energy and protein, but one of the things that’s been well known is milk does not have significant quantities of most of the trace elements. Particularly iron, copper, selenium and even some of the vitamins aren’t in high quantities within the milk,” Van Saun says.

Trace minerals and vitamins are essential for enzyme function, immune development and antioxidant defense, yet the neonatal diet provides very little of them. As a result, the calf’s ability to survive early life depends heavily on what accumulated before birth, particularly in the fetal liver.

“With some of the work that’s been done, we’re starting to recognize that the mineral status of that newborn calf is very dependent upon how we feed mom,” Van Saun says.

In addition to gestational nutrient transfer, colostrum is an important way to get calves off on the right foot, especially with fat soluble vitamins, so long as the mother has been appropriately supplemented.

Placental Transfer of Minerals and Vitamins

Minerals and vitamins reach the fetus through the placenta, but not all nutrients behave the same way. Trace minerals appear to move primarily by facilitated diffusion, rather than active transport. Van Saun explains that as a result, fetal blood concentrations are typically much lower than maternal blood concentrations.

Once those nutrients enter fetal circulation, the liver becomes the key storage site. However, the complete mechanism by which these nutrients are stored in the liver is not well understood.

“If you remember the anatomy, the umbilical vein goes directly to the liver. It’s my thinking that the fetal liver somehow captures these minerals and stores them,” Van Saun says. “The fetal liver can concentrate these trace elements to a level that’s nearly twice what we typically see in the dam. We need to find out what influences this.”

In contrast, fat-soluble vitamins cross the placenta inefficiently, particularly later in gestation, leaving newborn calves relatively depleted at birth and heavily reliant on colostrum to establish antioxidant protection.

Maternal Mineral Deficiencies and Fetal Loss

At the Penn State diagnostics lab, mineral and vitamin analyses of fetal and stillborn calf livers have revealed a surprising number of incidences of deficiency. Despite expectations of a linear relationship between maternal mineral status and fetal mineral status, there appears to be very little direct relationship.

“When I plot maternal versus fetal concentrations, I generally see a shotgun scattergram,” Van Saun explains. “That makes me think there’s got to be some other regulatory process there.”

Across the data, several nutrients appear repeatedly in association with fetal loss and stillbirth. Van Saun highlights the following:

Copper: Essential for enzyme systems and antioxidant defense
Selenium: Critical for glutathione peroxidase activity
Zinc: Involved in cellular and immune development
Magnesium: Supports energy metabolism and neuromuscular stability
Vitamin A: Needed for epithelial development and antioxidant defense

Oxidative Stress at Birth

As umbilical blood flow is compromised during delivery, particularly during prolonged or difficult births, the fetus experiences hypoxia.

“That’s going to produce large quantities of reactive oxygen species,” Van Saun explains. “And if those aren’t squelched by the antioxidant system, that could cause the demise of the animal.”

Trace minerals and fat-soluble vitamins play central roles in the defense against reactive oxygen species. When fetal reserves are marginal, oxidative stress during calving might push a compromised fetus past a survivable threshold. This could help explain why some stillborn calves show no obvious infectious, genetic or mechanical cause at necropsy.

Why Overfeeding Isn’t Usually the Problem

A common concern is whether aggressive mineral supplementation could harm the fetus. However, even in dams with liver mineral levels that would be considered toxicosis, fetal levels remain within a narrow range.

“When maternal concentrations of liver minerals are very low, the fetal maternal ratio is quite high. In other words, the fetus is capable of extracting more mineral from a deficient mom,” Van Saun says. “But as mom’s mineral status increases to very high levels, the ratio is quite low. Suggesting that there is some mechanism in place where the fetus doesn’t over accumulate.”

Van Suan observed this most profoundly with copper, but has also seen the same pattern with zinc, iron, selenium and manganese.

“Somehow, Mother Nature has built in a protective mechanism on both ends of the spectrum ensuring even when mom is on the low side, the fetus can try to accumulate,” he says. “And then if mom is on the high side, the fetus doesn’t over-accumulate.”

Stillborn Calves as Nutritional Sentinels

Stillborn calves represent an underused opportunity to evaluate herd nutrition. Liver mineral and vitamin analysis from stillborn calves can uncover deficiencies that were not clinically apparent in the dam.

“We really need to emphasize how to make a good situation out of a bad situation,” Van Saun says. “I think if you’re having a string of stillborns, I would be wanting to take a liver sample.”

Repeated measures of low selenium, copper, or vitamin A in stillborn calves, especially in the absence of other pathology, can point back to gestational nutrition as the root cause.

What Can You Do to Get Ahead of the Problem?

Effective investigation of stillbirths and weak calves should begin with diet evaluation, but meaningful assessment of gestational nutrition requires a broader, more deliberate strategy. A clearer understanding can be gained by using multiple diagnostic entry points across the herd and across time.

Van Saun highlights several practical diagnostic opportunities:

Submitting liver samples from stillborn calves when infectious and congenital causes are not identified
Using cull cow or abattoir liver samples to establish baseline mineral status
Sampling healthy animals within defined physiologic groups, rather than sick cows in inflammatory states
Building longitudinal data rather than interpreting isolated results

Taken together, these approaches allow the shift from reactive troubleshooting to proactive risk management.

Stillbirths and weak calves are often the final expression of biological constraints established months earlier not failures limited to the calving event.

Rethink the First Feeding: Calf Health Begins with Smarter Colostrum Strategies

Mon, 03 Nov 2025 15:16:06 GMT

For decades, dairy producers have fed newborn calves based on standard protocols for first-milking colostrum, but as Dr. Donald Sockett and Dr. Ryan Breuer from the University of Wisconsin noted on a recent Raising Your Best Dairy Heifer webinar, the underlying assumptions might be due for revision.

“The current colostrum feeding guidelines that are considered best practices today were developed a little more than two decades ago,” Breuer says. “So we’ve had some time to observe what’s going on with it and whether we need to make some changes or not.”

Sockett explains that the conventional gold standard of 50 grams of immunoglobulin G (IgG) per liter, which the guidelines are based on, was reasonable back then, but times have changed.

“The average here is 75 g to 95 g per liter,” he says. “Why would we build a program around fair [quality] colostrum?”

Because calves are receiving colostrum of higher quality than what the older guidelines are built around, feeding volumes and methods might need adjustment.

In a recent case report , Sockett and Breuer described a Holstein heifer that received what is considered best practice for colostrum delivery based on 10% body weight: 4 liters of first-milking colostrum 30 minutes after birth and an additional 2 liters six hours after the first feeding. Shortly after the second feeding, the calf developed colic and was in apparent pain. This animal was humanely euthanized less than 24 hours later after a lack of response to on-farm medical care.

According to the attending veterinarian, this was not a one-off case.

“This wasn’t the only calf at this dairy,” Breuer says. “The veterinarian had also seen similar situations at other dairies where these calves, after the recommended colostrum feeding, had distress or colic.”

Upon necropsy, they noticed incidents of aspiration in the lungs. It was concluded aspiration pneumonia killed the calf after some colostrum was regurgitated due to a distended abomasum from colostrum volume.

This report emphasizes the need to reevaluate colostrum feeding standards.

In September, Frederick and colleagues from Cornell University published a study looking into the effects of feeding colostrum at 6%, 8%, 10% or 12% of a calf’s body weight on IgG absorption, gastric emptying and postfeeding behavior.

Gastric emptying is an important factor as no colostrum absorption occurs in the abomasum. Passage to the small intestine in a timely manner before absorption efficiency goes down is key. Calves fed at 10% and 15% of their body weight had significantly lower apparent efficiency of absorption of IgG rates and showed significantly more behavioral signs of discomfort (abdomen kicks) than those fed 6% and 8%.

“So yes, you’re feeding a bigger mass of immunoglobulin when you feed these larger body weight [percentages], but if your efficiency of absorption is going down and you have these health complications, is that really the best thing for the calf?” Sockett says.

A study of 818 calves across 61 Holstein dairy farms by Morin and colleagues at the University of Montreal looked into how colostrum management practices impacted transfer of passive immunity (TPI). They found that the No. 1 factor affecting apparent IgG absorption was the concentration of IgG in the colostrum, or colostrum quality. Calves fed colostrum with a Brix value over 24.5% were almost three times more likely to have received adequate TPI. Additionally, calves fed equal to or greater than 2.5 liters of colostrum at their first meal (notably less than 10% of the calves body weight) within three hours of birth had the highest odds of receiving adequate TPI.

This adds weight to Sockett’s assertion.

“Think about our recommendation standards,” he says. “We haven’t even been talking about the two most important variables of effective efficiency of colostrum absorption. We have to start thinking about the quality of the colostrum and the mass of colostrum being delivered.”

If you’re creating a colostrum feeding program for a dairy operation, Sockett and Breuer recommend collecting a database of information of what’s going on in the herd. Answer the following questions to tailor the program to your farm:

What is the average birth weight of the calves? What are the lightest and heaviest animals?
Are you feeding pooled or individual colostrum?
What is the normal weight of the colostrum?
What is the mean and standard deviation of the Brix scores?
What is the timing of first colostrum delivery?
What are your TPI goals?

The idea is not to abandon colostrum best practices but to update them strategically. By refining colostrum feeding protocols, verifying colostrum quality, aligning volume with body weight and monitoring outcomes, dairy operations can create their own evidence-based practice. The result? Healthier calves, fewer complications and better use of that liquid gold.

How Young Herds Can Set Back Calf Health

Wed, 10 Sep 2025 11:53:56 GMT

The average dairy cow in the U.S. today produces about 2.8 lactations before she is removed from the herd and replaced with a younger counterpart. As a result, more than one third of the total U.S. lactating dairy population is made up of first-calf heifers.

That’s not a completely bad thing, according to Dr. Alvaro Garcia, feeds specialist, nutritionist and cattle management consultant for Dellait Animal Nutrition and Health.

“Younger cows are often more genetically advanced and economically efficient,” Garcia notes.

But those young lasses do lag behind their more seasoned herdmates in a number of other aspects that influence herd success, specifically:

(1) Colostrum volume and quality – Garcia said younger cows usually produce less at first milking, and research has shown their colostrum contains 30% to 50% less IgG than mature cows. Low-quality colostrum results in higher rates of failure of passive transfer (FPT) of immunity in calves. FPT is a handicap to calves in both the short and long term.

Affected animals may be weak, have poor suckle reflex, and have greater susceptibility to infections causing diarrhea, pneumonia, and septicemia. In the long game, these calves often have reduced average daily gain, poorer feed conversion, delayed puberty, lower first-lactation milk yields and are likely to be culled earlier.

(2) Calving challenges – First-calf heifers are more prone to dystocia due to their smaller pelvic size and inexperience. The result can be oxygen deprivation in calves and a greater likelihood they will become injured or die during birth.

(3) Mothering deficiencies – After their first delivery, young heifers often exhibit poorer maternal behavior like cleaning off their calf. Garcia says this can lead to delayed bonding and thermoregulation.

(4) Multiple nutrition demands – Because heifers are still growing at the time their first calf arrives, nutrient partitioning may favor their own development, impacting colostrum production and threatening calf vitality.

First-time bovine moms are asked to do a lot of novel things in a small amount of time. With these multiple new demands hitting them all at once, it’s no wonder they lag behind in the colostrum department.

“Colostrum from first-lactation cows should never be used without testing,” Garcia says. “If it falls short, it should be blended with higher-quality colostrum from older cows or supplemented with IgG replacers.”

Additionally, he advises dairies to maintain a reserve bank of high-quality, frozen colostrum, ideally sourced from older cows. He also emphasizes the importance of milking fresh cows within two hours of delivery, before colostrum becomes diluted with transition milk.

Finally, Garcia says ongoing herd surveillance for passive transfer of immunity is critical for all dairy herds, but especially young herds. When evaluated at 24 to 48 hours of life, he suggests calves show serum total protein of 6.2g/dL or Brix score of at least 8.4% for adequate transfer.

“If more than 10% of calves fall below this threshold, it is a sign that colostrum protocols need urgent revision,” he states.

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Before They Hit the Road: Rethinking Calf Transport for Better Health and Growth

Wed, 25 Jun 2025 22:04:00 GMT

For many dairy farms and calf raisers, shipping calves across state lines, or even just a few hours down the road, has become the new norm. But as David Renaud, Ph.D., explained during a recent Heifer Academy webinar, the decisions made before, during and after transport can have serious impacts on calf health, growth and long-term productivity.

“Transport is more than a logistical step,” Renaud says. “It’s a pivotal control point for long-term health and performance.”

Renaud, a veterinarian and researcher at the University of Guelph, has spent years digging into how transport affects calf health, growth and disease. His research shows just how quickly stress can pile up and why the choices made before, during and after a calf hits the road really matter when it comes to raising strong, healthy animals.

The Weight of the Journey
Calves endure a unique combination of challenges during transport such as limited access to food and water, temperature swings, crowding and exposure to new pathogens. In one study of 175 calves transported for six, 12 or 16 hours, those on the longest trips showed more signs of dehydration, higher rates of diarrhea and respiratory disease and depleted energy reserves.

“Calves on the 16-hour trip stood longer during transit but needed more rest afterward,” Renaud notes. “They also avoided areas that resembled trailers, which suggests they experienced psychological stress, too.”

Why Age Matters
Age plays a major role in how well calves handle transport, according to Renaud. Calves moved at 11 days or older had fewer sick days and gained more weight compared to those shipped younger. In another study, mortality dropped from 6% to 3% when calves were transported at 28 days instead of 14. These older calves also needed less treatment and ended their feeding period at heavier weights.

“I think transporting at an older age is probably a good thing,” Renaud says. “But we still need more data to say exactly when that sweet spot is.”

Globally, there’s growing consensus around transport age. Canada requires calves to be at least eight days old for auction, while Europe mandates 14 days and is considering raising it to 35. Australia and New Zealand require calves to be four to six days old before transport.

Is Rest During Long Hauls Worth It?
To comply with new Canadian regulations, calves traveling more than 12 hours must receive a rest period. Renaud’s team studied the impact of this rule by comparing calves transported for 16 hours straight with those given an eight-hour rest stop that included two milk feedings.

Results were mixed. While rested calves, especially those 9 to 10 days old, showed some growth improvement, they also had slightly higher treatment rates for respiratory disease.

“Those extra transitions — load, unload, rest, then reload — can wear calves down,” Renaud says. “The next day, we saw more laying behavior, likely due to fatigue.”

Fueling Calves for the Road
One of the most impactful changes producers can make is to feed milk before transport. Calves that weren’t fed beforehand showed higher levels of non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs), evidence that they were burning body fat to power through the journey.

“Basically, they’re pulling from their own body reserves, which isn’t ideal for a young calf,” Renaud explains.

In a follow-up study, milk-fed calves during a rest stop had better activity levels, fewer signs of illness, and no negative impact on growth when compared to calves fed electrolytes.

“Even in a stressful environment, feeding milk made a difference,” he says. “It’s a smart move. They need that energy.”

Health Checks Matter
The health status of a calf before it’s loaded onto the trailer plays a huge role in its outcome after arrival. In a study of more than 600 calves transported from British Columbia to Alberta, those with fever, umbilical infections, diarrhea or dullness were significantly more likely to need treatment, or die, at the calf raiser facility.

“I think it’s really, really important that we make sure calves are totally healthy and fit for transport,” Renaud says. “No fever, no infection and they should be bright and alert before they leave.”

Colostrum Is Still King
Renaud stresses that passive transfer remains one of the most important predictors of calf success. In a study of 1,000 calves arriving at a veal facility, those with poor colostrum absorption (under 10 g/L of IgG in blood) had a survival rate of 87%, compared to 97% in calves with IgG over 25 g/L.

“We talk a lot about colostrum for heifers, but even for male calves or crossbreds, it’s still absolutely critical,” Renaud adds. “Clean, high-quality colostrum fed early can make a huge difference.”

Don’t Overlook the Trailer Environment
Beyond distance and duration, the conditions inside the trailer can make or break a calf’s ability to cope. Poor ventilation, especially in sealed trailers during transitional weather, can lead to heat buildup and excess humidity, creating ideal conditions for respiratory disease.

“You may think you’re protecting the calf by sealing up the trailer, but you could be setting them up for pneumonia,” Renaud says. “Ventilation is probably a much bigger factor than we realize.”

Vaccines and Stacking Stressors
It’s common to vaccinate calves at birth or just before shipping, but Renaud says it’s worth rethinking that timing.

“There’s not a lot of data on how vaccines perform when calves are stressed,” he explains. “If you’re vaccinating right before or right after a long trip, there’s a chance the immune system won’t respond the way you want.”

Studies in feedlot cattle show that vaccines given at arrival aren’t always effective, and Renaud believes the same concern applies to newborn dairy calves.

“Stacking injections like vaccines, vitamins and antibiotics all at once just piles on the stress,” he adds. “If we want better immune protection, we might need to space those interventions out.”

Better Planning Means Better Outcomes
With more than 5 million dairy calves transported annually across North America, small changes in protocol can have a big impact. Renaud says producers should look at transportation not as a necessary evil but as a management tool.

Renaud’s tips for setting calves up for transport success include:

Wait until calves are at least 10 to 14 days old before transporting
Make sure calves receive high-quality colostrum early and adequately
Feed a full milk meal before loading them on the truck
Do a thorough health check. Only transport calves that are bright, alert and healthy
Pay attention to ventilation, especially during seasonal transitions
Avoid stacking multiple injections or vaccines around transport time

From colostrum quality to careful health checks and strategic feeding, every decision around transport matters. While not every challenge can be eliminated, producers who take a proactive, research-backed approach can significantly improve calf outcomes. As Renaud emphasizes, small, thoughtful changes made before the trailer doors close can set calves up for healthier starts, smoother transitions and stronger performance throughout their lives.

“Transport isn’t just a necessary step,” he adds. “It’s a management opportunity, and one that has a real impact on the future of the animal and the operation. With better preparation, we can give these calves the tools they need to handle that stress and thrive.”

Watch the full webinar with Dr. David Renaud here:

Added Powder = Added Growth for Preweaned Calves

Mon, 28 Apr 2025 21:12:50 GMT

In the quest to boost nutrition – and subsequent lifetime performance – of preweaned dairy calves, one strategy is to add milk replacer powder to enhance pasteurized whole milk.

Previous efforts to employ this strategy have shown improved preweaning average daily gain (ADG), but raised concerns about suppressing starter grain intake both pre- and post-weaning. Also of concern is the possibility of raising total solids to osmolality levels that cause digestive imbalances and diarrhea.

A team of researchers at the University of Illinois recently conducted a study to discern the best amount milk replacer to use when fortifying whole milk, and the ideal timeframe in which to do so. A total of 45 calves were fed a liquid ration for 59 days in three different feeding groups:

No supplement – 5 liters of pasteurized whole milk with no added milk replacer powder from days 3-56, followed by a step-down to 2.5 liters per day for days 57-59. Total solids: 31.9 kg.
Short-term supplement – 5 liters of pasteurized whole milk for days 3-9; an added supplement of milk replacer powder for days 10-41; and removal of the supplement from days 42-56; and a step-down to 2.5 liters per day, also with no supplement, for days 57-59. Total solids: 42.3 kg.
Long-term supplement -5 liters of pasteurized whole milk for days 3-9; an added supplement of milk replacer powder for days 10-56; and a step-down to 2.5 liters per day that included the added milk replacer powder. Total solids: 47.7 kg.

All calves were weaned on day 60 and the study concluded on day 75. When milk replacer was added, the amount was based off of previous research indicating that 18% solids was the “safe” upper bound without issues related to osmolality. So, milk replacer solids were added to the pasteurized whole milk, to achieve a total solids limit of 18%.

Throughout the study, calves had free-choice access to a starter total mixed ration formulated using a base of corn, barley, soybean meal, and fish meal, combined with 8% chopped second-cutting alfalfa hay. The diet was formulated for calves with a birthweight of 60-70 kg. to achieve a target ADG of 0.75 kg. per day.

The results, published in the Journal of Dairy Science , showed:

Starter feed intake was significantly higher in the preweaning period for calves that received no supplement, but did not vary significantly between the three groups in the postweaning period.
Calves that received the long-term supplement showed significantly lower starter intake at weaning time, but only for the first week, from days 56-62.
Total dry matter intake throughout the milk-feeding period was lowest in the non-supplemented group.
Calves with no supplement had the lowest weaning bodyweight, overall hip height, and final bodyweight.
The long-term supplemented calves had fewer health-related issues throughout the study.

The researchers concluded that while supplementing with milk replacer until the end of the milk-feeding period resulted in lower starter intake around the time of weaning, overall it was the most beneficial approach in terms of calf growth and health. Removing milk replacer supplementation midway through the preweaning phase, or not using it at all, decreased the ADG of calves.

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The Effects of Heat Stress on Dairy Cattle Development, Health and Performance

Wed, 23 Apr 2025 15:18:39 GMT

It is not breaking news that yearly temperatures on Earth have been consistently rising. Indeed, data released from NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies – GISS show that the global land-ocean temperature index has consistently increased after the 1900s (see Figure 1 below).

Regardless of the many factors that have been tied to the increase in global temperature (some that were addressed in previous WSU VetMed Extension Articles ), it is evident that the agriculture is affected by such changes, including the dairy industry. With increased global temperatures, the occurrence of heat stress (a condition that occurs when the body is exposed to excessive heat, leading to an inability to regulate body temperature effectively) and its associated detrimental impacts are more likely to be observed particularly in dairy cattle.

A recent study projected the decadal increases in average heat stress frequencies by 2100, and revealed that the majority of the U.S. regions will have at least 6 to 8 additional days under heat stress/decade until 2100 ( Gunn et al., 2019 ; Figure 2).

Because of the expected differences in climate, it is important that dairy industry stakeholders work together to further 1) understand the complexity and underlying mechanisms of heat stress impacts, and 2) develop alternative strategies to mitigate the detrimental impacts of heat stress.

With that in mind, this article focuses on reviewing some of the key aspects related to heat stress impacts on cattle development, health and performance, industry economics, and mitigating strategies.

Historically, the temperature-humidity index (THI) has been the mechanism used to determine when dairy cows are heat stressed. Although there is some variation on THI cut-offs the consensus was established as a THI between 68 and 70 ( Zimbelman et al., 2009 ; Chen et al., 2024 ). Guinn et al. ( 2019 ) described the differences in mean THI between summer and winter months in the U.S. for the last 10 years (69.5 vs. 39.3, respectively), highlighting that without any heat stress abatement strategies U.S. dairy cows could be under heat stress conditions for most of the summer months.

In fact, the same study revealed differences in productive and reproductive performance between summer and winter, illustrated by reduced milk production and pregnancy rates in summer compared with winter months. Similar results were also reported by other authors, including lowered pregnancy rates in warmer months compared with colder months of the year ( Hansen, 2009 ). Both Tao et al. ( 2020 ) and Ouellet et al. ( 2020 ) depicted the detrimental impacts of heat stress on milk production and dry-matter intake (Figures 3 and 4).

Other studies have demonstrated the effects of heat stress (or contrast between warmer vs. cooler months) on the occurrence of diseases, culling, and cow welfare. For instance, cows that calved in warmer months were observed to have greater odds of retained fetal membrane (Odds Ratio = 1.6), subclinical ketosis (Odds Ratio = 2.3), displaced abomasum (Odds Ratio = 1.8), and mastitis (Odds Ratio = 1.1) as compared with cows that calved in cooler months ( Pinedo et al., 2020 ).

Al-Qaisi et al. ( 2020 ) observed a greater somatic cell count in milk from cows exposed to heat stress conditions as compared with cows exposed to thermoneutral conditions, and cows that calved in the summer were more likely develop metritis as compared to cows that calved in cooler months ( Molinari et al., 2022 ). Furthermore, Vitali et al. ( 2015 ) reported higher mortality of cattle during heat wave periods compared to subsequent periods, and an association of mortality and heat wave duration (Figure 5). Heat stress conditions have also been associated with welfare issues in dairy cattle, as cows under heat stress conditions remain in a standing position for greater periods of time (possibly contributing to lameness issues) and have greater blood cortisol levels than cows under thermoneutral conditions ( Cook et al., 2007 ; Allen et al., 2015 ; Al-Qaisi et al., 2020 ).

Considering the effects of heat stress on cattle performance, mortality, and welfare, it is not a surprise that economic losses occur. Specifically, data published in 2003 estimated that heat stress conditions cause up to $2.3 billion/year in economic losses to livestock production ($2.9 billion in 2024 considering inflation). Under heat stress abatement strategies, the economic losses drop down to $1.7 billion/year and the dairy industry represents over 50% of the costs ($897 million; St-Pierre et al., 2003 ).

A component to heat stress in dairy cattle that has received a lot of attention is the “in utero” heat stress on dairy calves. Recent studies highlighted the carryover effects of late gestational heat stress on the progeny, illustrated by lowered birth weight (-4.6 kg), lowered weaning weight (-7.1 kg), and reduced longevity ( Ouellet et al., 2020 ). Moreover, the occurrence of heat stress during the dry period is also associated with differences in offspring mammary gland structure ( Dado-Senn et al., 2019 ), adrenal gland development ( Guadagnin et al., 2024 ), behavior ( Laporta et al., 2017 ), and hormonal/metabolic biomarkers ( Guo et al., 2016 ).

Lastly, combined studies have shown the legacy effect of heat stress on offspring, as lactational performance of such offspring is also different compared to offspring generated by dams under thermoneutral conditions ( Ouellet et al., 2020 ; Figure 6).

The research findings related to the legacy effect of heat stress on offspring add another layer of importance to the topic, and suggest that the detrimental effects and economic losses previously described are potentially underestimated.

Although the complex mechanisms that underlie the detrimental effects of heat stress on lactating dairy cows are not yet fully elucidated, studies have demonstrated biological changes associated with heat stress. For instance, lipopolysaccharide-induced accumulation of IL-1β, IL-10, and MIP-1α was greater in blood collected from postpartum cows that were under prepartum heat stress conditions as compared with control cows,implying that prepartum heat stress has carry-over effects on postpartum innate immunity, which may contribute to the increased incidence of uterine disease observed in cows exposed to prepartum heat stress ( Molinari et al., 2023 ).

Other studies have depicted differences in gut, ovary, muscle, and metabolism morphology/function associated with heat stress, which could be tied to the occurrence of subsequent diseases, animal performance, reproductive performance, and mortality ( Baumgard and Rhoads Jr, 2013 ; Fernandez et al., 2015 ; Hale et al., 2017 ; Ross et al., 2017 ; Fausnacht et al., 2020 ; Mayorga et al., 2020 ; Tang et al., 2022 ; Roths et al., 2023 ). Last but certainly not least, and certainly not depicting the entirety of the mechanisms of heat stress associated with cow performance, cows under heat stress conditions have reduced feed intake ( Rhoads et al., 2009 ) and reduced energy substrate adaptability in skeletal muscle, possibly contributing to reduced performance ( Ellett et al., 2025 ).

Given the detrimental impacts of heat stress on cattle performance, health, and welfare, it is important to consider the region-specific variations in climate and implement heat abatement strategies as needed. There are a variety of heat abatement strategies available for dairy calves, heifers, and cows that can be implemented in dairy operations. Multiple studies have tested the effects of different strategies for heat abatement in calves.

For instance, Dado-Senn et al. ( 2020 ) reported a positive association between postnatal heat stress abatement and thermoregulatory responses, feed intake, and health in dairy calves. Montevecchio et al. ( 2022 ) reported a positive relationship between pre-weaning heat stress abatement and lying behavior and healing time (related to disbudding) in dairy calves. The same group also reported positive welfare-related responses and greater wither-height for calves given heat abatement strategies as compared to calves under a simple plywood hutch ( Montevecchio et al., 2022 ).

Benefits for heat abatement in heifers and cows were also reported. For instance, the use of shade from a freestall barn, water soakers, and fans were associated with positive effects on heifer thermoregulation and productivity as compared with heifers kept under freestall shade only ( Davidson et al., 2021 ). Gunn et al. ( 2019 ) described the milk production losses (per cow/year) according to different heat abatement strategies, ranging from minimal (open barn or shading) to intense (air conditioning).

Aside from structural tools to improve heat abatement for dairy cattle, other studies have reported varying results associated with nutritional tools to ameliorate the impacts of heat stress in dairy cows, including chromium supplementation ( Soltan, 2010 ), Saccharomyces cerevisiae supplementation ( Al-Qaisi et al., 2020 ), choline ( Holdorf and White, 2020 ), and other components ( Fabris et al., 2017 ).

The potential of other strategies for heat abatement have been described; for example, a research group from the University of Florida reported that the SLICK haplotype confers thermotolerance in intensively managed lactating Holstein cows ( Dikmen et al., 2014 ). In that study, the authors revealed that cows carrying the SLICK haplotype had lowered rectal temperature and respiration rate across most times of the day compared with cows not carrying the SLICK haplotype.

Although several aspects associated with the SLICK haplotype have not been explored, a recent study reported that SLICK Holstein cows in Puerto Rico exhibited lower body temperatures, greater voluntary solar radiation exposure, enhanced blood supply to the mammary gland, and alterations in genes and metabolites involved in arachidonic acid metabolism at the mammary gland and blood plasma ( Contreras-Correa et al., 2024 ).

Figure 1

(The Author)

Figure 1. Global land-ocean temperature index ( NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies – GISS ).

(The Author)

Figure 2. Projected decadal increases in average annual Heat Stress Frequency between 2000 to 2100 ( Adapted from Gunn et al., 2019 ).

Average Daily THI

(The Author)

Figure 3. Correlation between milk yield and the average daily temperature-humidity index (THI) of the previous week. Circles represent individual observations, and dash line represents simple linear regression. All cows were housed in the same barn equipped with evaporative cooling, and fed similar lactating cow rations (Adapted from Tao et al., 2020 ).

(The Author)

Figure 4. (A) Summary of difference (kg/d) in milk yield in late-gestation heat-stressed cows relative to cooled counterparts (average difference = 3.6 kg/d; 10.3%) and (B) difference (kg/d) in prepartum and postpartum dry matter intakes in late-gestation heat-stressed cows relative to cooled counterparts (prepartum average difference = 1.4 kg/d; 12.7%; postpartum difference = 0.1 kg/d, 0.5%). Adapted from Ouellet et al., 2020 .

(The Author)

Figure 5. (A) Odds ratio and 95% CI calculated for dairy cow mortality during heat wave (HW) and in the 3 not heat wave days (nHW) after the end of heat wave (d 1, 2, and 3 defined as nHWst, nHWnd, and nHWrd, respectively). (B) Odds ratio and 95% CI calculated for dairy cow mortality in relation to the duration of exposure to heat. The duration of exposure was classified as short (1 to 3 heat wave days), medium (4 to 6 heat wave days), long (7 to 10 heat wave days), and very long (>11 heat wave days). Odds ratios are statistically significant when 95% CI does not include the unit (dashed line). Adapted from Vitali et al., 2015 .

(The Author)

Figure 6. Summary of the performance impairments associated with late-gestation heat stress for the dam (1), daughters (F1), granddaughters (F2), and dairy sector (2) reported in a series of study (where ECM = energy corrected milk). Extracted from Ouellet et al., 2020

New Calf Health Monitoring Tool is Nothing to Spit At

Fri, 18 Apr 2025 20:45:03 GMT

It’s easy to access, non-invasive, and could provide a window into the health status and welfare of calves. What is it? Believe it or not: saliva.

Animal scientists are researching the telegraphing abilities of saliva in various animal species, including calves. By analyzing its chemical properties, saliva – and changes in its composition over time – can signal stress, inflammation, immune response, and sometimes the presence of disease-causing pathogens.

A recent study by Hungarian researchers measured the cortisol levels in saliva of newborn calves. They found that the levels went up precipitously for all calves immediately after birth, signifying that birth and acclimation to the post-birth environment are highly stressful for calves.

Most significantly, calves that experienced dystocia exhibited much higher salivary cortisol concentrations compared to calves with a normal birth, likely due to prolonged parturition and/or forced extraction.

Another study conducted is Spain also looked at chemical markers in saliva to monitor systemic oxidative stress and compensating antioxidants. They found that when calves were weaned and commingled into larger groups, oxidant molecules increased, which in turn triggered an increase in antioxidants.

This information is valuable from a research perspective because saliva can be sampled using a non-invasive method to assess animal welfare and health, avoiding more painful, time-consuming, and invasive procedures such as blood and tissue sampling. Saliva sampling is noted to be fast, accurate, and cost-effective, and for these reasons can be performed very frequently.

At a more practical level, saliva samples could help determine less-stressful methods of managing and transporting calves. In the future, automated saliva sampling also could possibly trigger alerts for calves on the front side of a disease challenge like pneumonia, or adult cows in the early stages of lameness or metritis, as a few examples.

Saliva also could serve as a tool to determine the best timing for management practices like administering vaccines. If calves are found to be in a state of high oxidative stress based on a simple saliva test, vaccination could be delayed until those levels come down.

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Cool Calves Live Longer

Thu, 03 Apr 2025 15:00:00 GMT

The average number of lactations of a U.S. dairy cow currently rests at about 2.8, or around 5 years of age.

That’s a fairly shocking statistic, considering a cow’s natural lifespan can be up to 20 years or more. And, on average, it takes about two full lactations before heifers begin to generate return on investment for their rearing or purchase cost. Given today’s robust heifer values, that time before young cows begin to pay the bills may be even greater.

So, how can we help cows live longer, more productive lives? Researchers at the University of Florida assessed one factor: birth season. They predicted that cows that entered the world during seasons of heat stress would have shorter lifespans. And they were right.

The study, led by researcher Izabella Toledo and published in the Journal of Dairy Science , examined the DairyComp records of more than 10,000 cows in Florida and 8,000 in California that remained alive and productive for more than 5 lactations.

The data were sorted to identify animals born over a period of 10 years (2012-2022) in the cool season (December, January, February, and March) and the hot season (June, July, August, and September). Cows born in the more temperate months of April, May, October, and November were not included in the dataset.

In Florida, 14.5% of cows (1,567) born in the test months were still alive and milking after 5 lactations. Of them, more than double (1,129, or 72%) were born in the cool months compared to the hot months (438, or 28%). In California, 20.4% (1,669) of the dataset made it 5 lactations or longer, with 56.% of them born in the cool months, versus 44% born in the hot months.

The Florida dataset also was analyzed for the number of cows born in the tests months that were dead or sold for beef in the first 4 lactations, and the reasons why. A total of 1,454 were sold and another 238 died. Selling reasons included breeding, foot and leg, digestive, and respiratory issues, along with mastitis.

Significantly more cows born in the hot season (53%) compared to the cool season (47%) were sold for beef.On-farm deaths also were significantly higher for cows born in the hot (54%) versus cool (46%) season.

Toledo and her team concluded that the results give even more credence to the deleterious impacts of heat stress on dairy productivity. Previous studies – many also conducted by University of Florida researchers – have shown that heat stress during late pregnancy affects dams’ milk production in the next lactation, immune function, and calf birth weight.

Further, they have found that calves exposed to heat stress in late gestation had 19% lower milk production in their own first lactations, and even passed that lower milk production potential on to their offspring.

Toledo said the results of the current study suggest a potential two-pronged approach to protecting the productive life integrity of newborn heifers: (1) implement heat-stress abatement measures for dams, including shade, fans, soakers, and misters; and (2) alter breeding decisions to avoid births in seasons of peak heat.

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Four Tips for Cleaning and Storing Calf Jackets

Mon, 01 May 2023 13:21:22 GMT

The birds are chirping, the flowers are blooming and spring has finally sprung in most parts of the country. With temperatures rising from coast to coast, now is the time to wash and put away all of the calf jackets used over winter.

Kelly Driver, the Northeast Territory Manager for Calf-Tel, recommends the following tips when it comes to cleaning and storing calf jackets.

Wash – Most calf jackets tend to come with washing instructions. When laundering jackets, make sure to only wash a few at a time to ensure that your washing machine does not get overloaded. Driver notes that jackets should be machine washed at a maximum of 113°F.

“I would suggest calf jackets be washed just like any other barn jacket,” she says. “Be sure to remove any excess debris from the jacket and clean out the Velcro. A cat or pet brush with wire bristles can sometimes be helpful with this.”

Dry – When it comes to drying calf jackets, air drying is recommended. However, jackets can also be thrown into the dryer on low heat. Similar to washing, consider machine drying only a few jackets at a time to prevent the dryer from overheating.

Inspect - After laundering, Driver recommends taking time to inspect the jackets for any tears or flaws. Look over straps and buckles to ensure they are still working and consider patching any minor rips. Now is also a good time to take inventory of how many jackets you have and order additional jackets for next season.

Put Away – Once jackets are completely dry, they can be folded and put away for the season. Consider storing jackets in a plastic tote to help prevent rodents from making the jackets their new home. Jackets should also be kept easily accessible in case temperatures do drop.

Calf Milk Poses H5N1 Risk, Too

Wed, 19 Mar 2025 17:11:23 GMT

Soon after the discovery of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) strain H5N1 in dairy cattle, scientists learned that milk was a primary vector in spreading the disease from cow to cow.

But what happens when waste milk from the sick cows is fed to other animals? Early in the disease outbreak, domestic cats consuming raw milk from infected cows began dying. This prompted researchers at the USDA National Animal Disease Center in Ames, Iowa to conduct a study on the potential of passing H5N1 to preweaned calves via unpasteurized waste milk.

Four Holstein calves ranging from 7-11 weeks of age were fed approximately 1 quart of unpasteurized waste milk from experimentally inoculated cows twice a day for 4 days. One additional calf served as a control, and was fed milk from HPAI-free cows in the same experiment period.

Calves fed infected milk showed signs of illness that included nasal discharge, mild fever, mild lethargy, loose stools, and slightly increased respiratory effort for 5-6 days. The researchers noted that all symptoms were mild and may not be readily recognized in an on-farm setting with other environmental or health stressors.

Transmission of the H5N1 virus to the 4 calves fed infected milk was confirmed via nasal swabs collected 2-4 days after the feedings. Within 2 weeks after the experimental feeding trial, all calves in the study were humanely euthanized. Presence of the virus was further confirmed via tissue samples from lung lesions, lymph nodes, and tonsils from the 4 calves receiving infected milk.

The USDA researchers said the study underscored the importance of pasteurizing waste milk fed to calves, as pasteurization has been proven to kill the virus. This is especially crucial because research on infected herds has shown that cows begin shedding the virus in their milk up to 2 weeks before they start to show clinical signs of illness.

Meanwhile, researchers at the University of California-Davis have investigated a practical alternative to pasteurization of waste milk: acidification. In a study recently published in the Journal of Dairy Science , they noted that fewer than 50% of large dairy farms routinely pasteurize waste milk fed to calves.

They found that in a laboratory setting, acidification of waste milk with citric acid to a pH of 4.1-4.2 effectively deactivated the H5N1 virus. The acidification process takes only 6 hours and does not require refrigeration.

The UC-Davis researchers posed that acidification can be a practical, affordable, accessible method of preventing the spread of H5N1 to calves in operations that do not have pasteurization systems for waste milk.

Calves will be a critical control point in navigating H5N1 in the U.S. dairy industry. The USDA researchers noted that 1 out of every 10 dairy operations in the country raise their heifers off site, and most veal and beef-cross calves are transported to another facility for raising.

Protecting those calves from H5N1 will be a crucial element in preventing spread of the disease.

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Body Temperature is a Bellwether for Calf Health

Wed, 26 Feb 2025 16:00:00 GMT

Just like young children, sick calves often signal their illness by exhibiting fevers.

Normal body temperature for a healthy preweaned calf is in a range of 100-103°F, according to UK-based animal health supplier AniMac. It tends to be lower first thing in the morning at around 100°F, and reaches its peak in the afternoon.

But when calves are infected with a disease-causing pathogen, one of the body’s common responses to fight it is fever, according to Mariah Gull, ruminant nutritionist with Calf Distinction . “They may also be depressed, go off feed, and have an elevated pulse rate,” Gull advised. “The calf’s body becomes hot and dry, respiration rate increases, and the calf may become severely depressed and unable to stand.”

Gull said pneumonia is one of the most under-diagnosed diseases in calves. Unlike scours, its symptoms can be very subtle. And permanent lung damage is common, causing production setbacks for animals for the rest of their lives, even if they survive.

That’s why early detection of disease is so critical. Taking calf temperatures is a quick and accurate way to assess calf health. Gull noted digital thermometers – even those designed for humans – can provide speedy and precise readings of rectal temperatures.

Some advice for the procedure:

Lubricate the bulb end of the thermometer.
While holding the calf steady with one hand, gently place the bulb end of the thermometer on the calf’s anus.
Push the full length of the thermometer into the rectum. The thermometer must be directly touching the side of the rectum for an accurate reading.
Digital thermometers usually beep when they have reached a steady reading. Before removing the thermometer, press the button to store the temperature, or simply read it.
Withdraw the thermometer and wipe it clean with a paper towel.
Record the calf’s temperature and any treatments given.
Keep a thermometer handy at all times so temping calves becomes a routine part of daily calf care.

AniMac officials noted that calves’ thermoneutral zone, in which they do not burn extra energy to regulate their body temperature, is between 50 and 77°F. Other factors like wind and wet haircoats also can cause them to burn energy, requiring more calories and possibly suppressing skeletal growth, weight gain, and immunity.

Calf jackets and deep straw bedding that allow calves to nest can help them maintain a constant body temperature. When calves stay warm and dry through the night, they have less need to play “catch up” with their body temperature through the day.

Anything over 103°F indicates illness that requires treatment; extreme fevers can drive calf body temperatures up to 107°F. If it reaches 108°F, the calf will likely die of heat stroke.

“We rarely get second chances with sick calves,” advised Gull. “Work with your veterinarian to establish a treatment protocol for calves exhibiting abnormal temperatures.”

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Calf Feeding Frequency Found to Be Less Important than Feeding Rate

Tue, 21 Jan 2025 19:18:36 GMT

It seems logical that delivering liquid rations to preweaned dairy calves more frequently throughout the day would help improve their performance.

But a summary of consensus data from research studies considered when developing the NASEM 2021 dairy nutrition standards produced little evidence of that being the case. Those studies generally showed that feeding calves more than two times per day had no repeatable effect on average daily gain (ADG) or health, given equal total nutrients delivered per day.

A couple of historic studies even showed little difference in performance when calves were fed only once per day. However, the NASEM reviewers expressed concern that 1X feedings would result in delays in disease detection due to calves potentially being observed less frequently.

In those studies, performance was improved when greater feeding frequency resulted in more total nutrients delivered per day. Another potential noted benefit was that spreading out feedings could improve abomasal health.

More recently, a study published in the journal Nature and conducted by a team of Iranian dairy researchers attempted to parse the dual influence of nutrition volume and feeding frequency.

That team hypothesized that greater feeding frequency, particularly when calves are fed high volumes of milk, would improve calf performance due to the previously cited influence on abomasal processing.

Specifically, the Iranian researchers noted, “Previous studies have shown that increasing the amount of milk or milk replacer increases the reflux of milk not the reticulorumen and decreases the abomasal emptying rate. Thus, increasing the frequency of milk feeding may reduce meal size, accelerate abomasal emptying, better regulate the rate of nutrient entry into the small intestine, reduce energy loss during abomasal fermentation of carbohydrates, and thereby improve nutrient utilization and efficiency.”

Their study included 48 Holstein heifer calves started on a common colostrum and transition-milk protocol. On the 4^th day of life, they switched to pasteurized whole milk and assigned to one of four feeding groups:

Medium-rate milk feeding (6 L/day) fed 2X.
Medium-rate milk feeding (6 L/day) fed 3X.
High-rate milk feeding (8 L/day) fed 2X.
High-rate milk feeding (8 L/day) fed 3X.

All calves were fed using a step-up, step-down approach to smooth transitions to starter grain, and were weaned at 56 days of age and observed until 70 days of age. They then were raised in a common group and monitored for a wide range of performance factors through their first 305-day lactations. Results included:

ADG was not affected by the interaction between milk feeding levels and feeding frequency.
Regardless of feeding frequency, ADG was higher for high-rate-fed calves compared to the medium-rate-fed animals both preweaning and postweaning.
Calves fed more milk were inseminated earlier with a lower age at first insemination.
Compared to the medium-rate group, the high-rate group showed significantly more milk production and energy-corrected milk in their first 305-day lactation.

The researchers concluded that increased milk volume has greater impact on the short- and long-term performance of heifer calves than does small changes in meal size created by greater feeding frequency.

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Turn Up the Heat on Winter Calf Water

Tue, 05 Nov 2024 23:28:44 GMT

Winter brings a host of extra challenges for calf raisers. But calves still need the same nutrients and amenities as they do in more temperate months, plus more.

Water plays a critical role in rumen development, and should not be skipped in the winter months, despite the extra time and effort delivering it requires. When preweaned calves have access to free-choice water, they will consume it at about four times their dry-matter intake -- just like older heifers and cows – according to longtime calf nutrition researcher Dr. Al Kertz .

Rumen bacteria must live in water. Without water, rumen development is slowed, and calves also have been shown to consume less starter grain in the absence of water.

“Calves like warm water, especially in the wintertime,” stated University of Wisconsin Regional Extension Dairy Educator Alison Pfau . She added that research has shown even adult cows prefer warm water (86°F vs. 50°F) in hot summer conditions.

A study in Finland, published in the Journal of Dairy Science , showed that preweaned calves drank 47% more water when it was warmed to about 63°F, compared to cold water at around 45°F. Even after weaning, the calves offered warm water continued to drink more. While that study did not show any appreciable body weight gain between the two groups, Kertz noted that the calves were raised on a diet that was very different than would typically be fed in the U.S.

Cold water also delivers a bit of a shock to the rumen. A decades-old study by researchers at South Dakota State University examined rumen temperature in calves after drinking water of various temperatures. They found the rumen temperature dropped significantly when calves consumed water at 45°F, and it took about an hour for the rumen temperature to return to body temperature. So, feeding water at near body temperature (100-102°F) can help keep the rumen environment more stable.

Kertz said warm water feeding also helps calves conserve energy in colder weather, because they do not need to use additional dietary or body energy to warm colder water to rumen temperature. “A third daily water feeding, if milk or milk replacer is fed only twice daily, can help increase starter grain intake, and its subsequent heat of rumen fermentation can help calves to keep warmer,” he advised.

The dry atmosphere of winter is another factor underscoring the importance of water. “A calf exhales more moisture into the drier, colder winter air than they inhale, which leads to losing more body water with each breath compared to warmer air conditions like spring or summer,” advised Pfau.

It’s challenging to deliver water to the calves in the wintertime, but the late calf and heifer specialist Sam Leadley said it was still possible, and very necessary for optimal calf development. “In freezing conditions, take advantage of habit-driven calf behavior. Feed water on a consistent timetable – same time every day,” he advised. “If calf care personnel carefully observe winter water consumption patterns of calves, a ‘feed-and-dump’ routine can work very well.”

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Oregano: Not Just for Pizza Anymore

Mon, 14 Oct 2024 21:05:20 GMT

Move over, pizza and pasta. Oregano – specifically, its essential oil – is finding its way into calf diets.

Oregano essential oil has been shown to have antibacterial properties against Gram-negative bacteria, especially E. coli. It also has been shown to have antiviral and anticryptosporidial effects in laboratory settings.

Two recent studies examined the effects of oregano essential oil in calf diets.

The first study, led by researchers at Aristotle University of Thessaloniki in Greece, examined the effects on early life diarrhea by supplementing newborn calves with Greek oregano essential oil. A total of 91 Holstein calves from three dairy farmers were included.

Half of the calves received a drench of oregano essential oil at 12.5 mg/kg of bodyweight for the first 10 days of life. The other half received no treatment. The researchers noted that, because oregano oil has a strong flavor, they opted for a drench delivery to avoid affecting milk intakes. The oil was diluted with saline solution up to 60 mL.

Results included:

· The overall incidence of diarrhea was significantly lower in the calves receiving oregano oil. That difference was the result of a dramatically lower incidence at one of the farms, which had outstanding hygiene, leading the researchers to speculate that diarrhea incidence was reduced most effectively by oregano oil when pathogen loads were low.

· For calves from all farms, the severity of diarrhea was appreciably lower in the oregano-oil-treated calves. This was the result of a lower number of days with diarrhea, lower diarrhea index, shorter duration of sickness, and fewer calves requiring treatment (antibiotic and supportive therapy).

The researchers speculated that reduced severity of diarrhea in calves treated with oregano oils was due to inhibition of coliform bacteria overgrowth in the small intestine of diarrheic calves, leading to lower incidence of bacteremia.

The second study , conducted at the Gansu Academy of Agricultural Sciences in China, examined the potential of replacing monensin with oregano essential oil in the grower diet of weaned Holstein bull calves. The research team speculated that oregano could provide the same benefits to rumen fermentation as monensin, modulating rumen fermentation and potentially lowering acidosis.

One of four treatments was assigned to three calves each, for a total of 12 calves in the study. Starting at 70 days of age, calves were followed for the next 240 days, receiving (1) no treatment (control); (2) oregano essential oil at 36 mg/kg of dry matter (DM)in the TMR; (3) monensin at 25 mg/kg of DM; and (4) a combination therapy including both the same dose of oregano oil and monensin.

Both the oregano essential oil group and the monensin group had significantly higher weight gain than the other two groups. Interestingly, the lowest weight gain was in the combination therapy group, leading the researchers to believe that the two treatments had an antagonistic effect on one another.

They concluded that using oregano essential oil alone could be a valid alternative to monensin, providing a non-antibiotic alternative that still yielded growth promotion benefits.

Why Some Farmers are Making the Big Switch from Dairy to Beef Production

Thu, 10 Oct 2024 17:05:59 GMT

While beef-on-dairy production continues to grow in the U.S., it was a novel concept in 2018 when it came to the attention of Ryan Sterry, regional dairy educator with the University of Wisconsin-Madison Division of Extension.

“A few colleagues and myself were noticing more chatter about this, more farms were experimenting with it,” Sterry recalls.

Fast forward to 2024, and beef-on-dairy is a significant trend that continues to build. CattleFax predicts U.S. beef-on-dairy cattle numbers will reach between 4 million and 5 million head – roughly 15% of the cattle harvested annually – as early as 2026.

In a wide-ranging conversation on The Dairy Podcast Show with host Dr. Gail Carpenter, state dairy Extension specialist for Iowa, Sterry shared some of his early insights and experiences with beef-on-dairy as well as other business opportunities producers have enbraced.

“We’re seeing all sorts of different strategies out there today,” he says. “Some producers say, ‘We’re just going to deal with the milking herd,’ because they can source their replacement heifers, more economically and get better genetics, from another herd. I have other producers who have backed off from beef-on-dairy because they have an outlet for fresh heifers, and that’s another business strategy for them.”

Still, other dairy producers, because of low milk prices in recent years, have decided to transition to beef production. Sterry says he and colleague Bill Halfman, University of Wisconsin Extension beef outreach specialist, have worked with a number of dairy producers who have decided to move exclusively to beef.

Sterry outlines five areas for dairy producers wanting to make the move to beef to think through in the process of making the switch:

1. Start With The Right Animal

Sterry says it’s important for producers to know their goals as they select breeding stock.

While some producers opt to use their home-grown crossbred heifers as breeding stock for starting their beef enterprise, Sterry doesn’t encourage the practice. The reason – because a beef cow could be in the herd for eight years or longer, and will have a long-lasting impact on production quality, he encourages producers to start their beef enterprise with full-blooded animals.

“The caution that we definitely want to put out there is those animals are going to retain some dairy characteristics in their genetics for generations down the line,” he says.

His recommendation: “Decide what emphasis on growth, carcass and maternal traits best fit your production and marketing goals and seek out those cattle to create a solid foundation.”

2. Evaluate Facilities

Dairy operations can often be retrofitted or revamped successfully for beef production. Sterry says bunk and housing space need to be evaluated to prevent the potential for crowding.

Also, consider whether any facilities need repairs or if there are potential hazards that need to be addressed prior to bringing animals into building facilities or lots.

3. Nutritional Needs

“In the transition from dairy to beef, one of the bigger things that we start talking about is that feeding a beef animal is different,” Sterry says. “You’ll need to adjust your expectations for the nutrition program in a cow herd as there’s not multiple rations being used.”

Instead, cow-calf and stocker operations typically rely more on forages such as pasture, crop residues, cover crops and harvested forages.

“Feed costs are approximately 60% of the annual costs of cow-calf enterprises. Letting the cows harvest their own feed by grazing and managing harvested feed storage and feeding waste are critical for controlling costs,” Sterry says.

He adds that finely ground corn is not a good fit in beef finishing rations and can cause rumen acidosis.

“Coarse corn is better for beef animals. Ultra-fine ground corn does not work well, and that’s something we’ve had to uneducate some of our dairy producers on,” he says.

4. Stockmanship Requirements

Sterry says dairy producers often tell him that because they’ve worked with cattle all their life they don’t need to work on their handling practices. But Sperry says beef cattle are a different animal.

“Beef cattle are not used to being handled every day, so dairy producers need to give some thought to stockmanship,” he says.

Part of the reason he emphasizes that is for practical safety considerations. Plus, cattle remember how they were handled in the past, and their behavior – whether skittish or compliant – will often reflect what they remember.

5. The Need to Market Versus Sell

Sterry says dairy producers are often accustomed to selling week-old calves and market cows they don’t want to hang on to for too long.

“When we’re trying to move them off the farm on a timely basis, a lot of times we’re selling ones and twos every week or every other week. With beef cattle, we frame the process as needing to market versus just sell,” he says.

To educate themselves, Sterry encourages dairy producers to attend local sales to see what kind of beef animal buyers are looking to purchase.

“With marketing, you’re advocating for yourself with a buyer, putting the best group of cattle together that you can, and trying to move away from the mentality of ‘I’ll just sell ones and twos,’” he says. “It’s an education process, and sitting through some sales can help.”

The complete conversation between Sterry and Carpenter is available here: Ryan Sterry: Beef x Dairy Crossing

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Whole Grains are Good for Calves, Too

Wed, 02 Oct 2024 14:15:00 GMT

You may be old enough to remember the time when bleach-white Wonder® Bread was a dietary staple in most American homes.

But over time, nutrition research revealed the multiple merits of less-processed whole grains. Their higher fiber and protein, plus more vitamins and minerals, have been proven to improve blood sugar levels, digestive processes, heart health and more.

Now, it appears that calves, too, may benefit from whole versus processed grains in their diets. Dr. Michael Ballou, Professor and Chair in the Department of Veterinary Sciences at Texas Tech University, shared insights into the value of feeding whole grains on a recent webinar hosted by the Dairy Cattle Reproduction Council .

Ballou said fermentable carbohydrates are the name of the game when it comes to rumen development and maturation in young calves. But the traditional method in which those carbohydrates have been delivered via calf starter may require a second look.

He cited a recent University of Wisconsin study that compared a starter that delivered 43% starch and 15% NDF using ground corn and oats in a pelleted formulation. That product was compared to a texturized starter delivering 35% starch and 25% NDF via whole corn, oats, and cottonseed hulls.

“Don’t get hung up on the pelleted versus texturized formulations,” he advised, noting that the difference in starch and NDF levels are the more important comparison.

Despite the pelleted ration being the more “conventional” calf starter formulation that packed a large punch in terms of fermentable carbohydrates, the consumption patterns and resulting weight gain were quite surprising.

For example, at 7 weeks of age, calves were consuming 3.1 pounds of dry-matter of the higher-starch, pelleted ration, while the calves on the lower-starch ration consumed 4.6 pounds of dry matter per day. This resulted in a net increase in total starch consumption of 153 more grams of total starch for calves consuming the lower-starch ration (pelleted: 481 g., texturized 634 g.).

That consumption translated into significantly different growth and weight gain between the two groups post-weaning. At 16 weeks, the calves on the lower-starch, whole-grain ration weighed an average of 352 pounds – about 80 pounds per head more than those on the higher-starch ration.

“A couple of years ago, I would have said, ‘You’re leaving some growth on the table by feeding a starter like that’ – when in reality, they saw really good growth with it,” stated Ballou. “Although it was formulated at a lower starch level, it produced healthier rumens and impressive improvements in average daily gains.”

He said the high-starch starter likely limited growth due to ruminal acidosis, a theory that is supported by lower rumen pH and higher rumen lesion scores for calves consuming it.

The researcher is so confident in those results that he has shifted feeding strategies in his own calves. Ballou raises calves in both the Midwest and Southwest. A standard starter ration for his calves consists of just protein pellets, whole corn, cottonseed hulls and molasses, with a little chopped, low-nutrient forage added near weaning.

“I have a study going right now in which I’m feeding a calf starter that I would not have touched a few years ago,” he added. That ration has a starch percentage in the low 20s, with high levels of digestible NDF via wheat middlings and soy hull pellets.

Ballou has a hunch that rethinking starter grain formulation strategies may hold some clues in solving the mystery of liver abscesses that plague fed dairy and dairy-beef calves, by helping develop a healthier rumen in the first 6 months of life. He said on a percentage basis, fermentable carbohydrates may actually impair rumen development and set calves up for rumenitis due to suppressed starter intake and lower rumen pH, with subsequently lower average daily gains.

The solution: feed whole grains, and bump up fiber levels via higher NDF values. “We know fermentable carbohydrates are going to stimulate rumen development,” declared Ballou. “We just need to deliver them in a smarter way.”

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3 Causes of Blood Calf Stools (Calf Scours)

Thu, 26 Sep 2024 21:03:19 GMT

The sight of bloody calf scours is a disturbing one, but the condition is not always fatal. University of Wisconsin Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory director Keith Poulsen says pinpointing the cause of scours through diagnostics is the best approach to effective treatment, and prevention of future cases.

“The source of scours tends to follow a continuum consistent with age of the calf,” Poulsen told the audience at the recent Dairy Calf and Heifer Association annual conference. “Scours in the first few days of life is very challenging to diagnose. But after that, it becomes easier to nail down the cause based on how old the animal is.”

Poulsen pointed out that not all scours are caused by bacteria. Viruses and parasites also play a role, and inconsistent feeding or rapid dietary changes can upset the gut flora and cause “nutritional” scours.

“If you see bloody scours, they typically are the result of one of three organisms – Salmonella, coronavirus or coccidia” said Poulsen. “These three causes may overlap a bit in age, but knowing about the presence of blood, the calf’s age, and other factors such as seasonality, helps us zero in on the necessary diagnostic tests pretty quickly.” His descriptions of each organisms include:

Salmonella

The earliest cases of bloody scours likely will be caused by a strain of salmonella, and typically will surface when calves are 4 to 10 days old. Salmonella is a bacteria that likes the warm and humid summer temperatures, but is very adaptive to survive in odd environments like the dry and dusty corners of a calf barn. Poulsen stressed that there are many serotypes of salmonella that are pathogenic to calves, some of which also can be highly infective in humans. Salmonella Newport is one such zoonotic bacteria that frequent infects human caretakers. Salmonella Dublin, although uncommon, can cause serious illness in humans. Salmonella Heidelberg has emerged recently as a highly potent calf-killer, causing death losses in 25 to 60% of affected calves in as swiftly as 4 to 8 hours. S. Heidelberg is resistant to many antibiotics, and has now been diagnosed in people and cattle in 17 states.

Coronavirus

Coronavirus and its usual companion, rotavirus, surface in calves from about 5 to 30 days of age. While the two often occur in tandem, coronavirus is the one that causes bloody scours, and also may cause respiratory symptoms. About 70% of adult cows shed coronavirus in their feces, and it has a long survival life on-farm, surviving in manure for up to 9 months. Often called “winter dysentery,” coronavirus loves cold weather, and also can be spread from calf-to-calf.

Coccidiosis

Infection by the coccidia parasite can occur from 1-2 weeks to several months of age. The parasite has a 3-week incubation period from the time of infection to the shedding infectious parasites into the environment. Most of these infections (95%) are subclinical, but other stressors on the animal, and/or an overwhelming dose of coccidia will cause visible symptoms, including the tell-tale presence of blood in the stool. Coccidiosis occurs more frequently in warm, moist climates; a hard frost is helpful in breaking its reproduction cycle in the environment.

How do you treat a calf with blood in its stool?

Interestingly, the three causes of bloody scours are three different types of organisms – a bacteria, a virus and a parasite. Poulsen stressed that antibiotics only are effective on bacteria. And even if the cause is a bacterial, not every bug will succumb to every drug.

“This shows the importance of diagnostic work,” he stated. “For example, coronavirus often is confused with Salmonella because they present similar symptoms in a parallel timeframe. But effectively treating and preventing the two diseases requires different approaches.”

In all cases of calf scours, Poulsen said supportive therapy such as extra fluids and pain management often will best serve the calf. If the cause is bacterial, antibiotic sensitivity testing may be necessary to select the most effective treatment and bring an outbreak under control.

“The more information you and your veterinarian can provide at the beginning of the diagnostic process, the more helpful information you will receive back,” stated Poulsen. “We strive to provide answers in a timely and cost-effective manner, which we can do best with more information at the start.”

For more on calf management, read:

Up Your Calf Management Game with These 5 Tools

Mon, 10 Jun 2024 14:31:46 GMT

The Dairy Calf and Heifer Association Annual Conference is a once-a-year opportunity for calf and heifer raisers from across the country and around the world to network and share ideas.

The recent 2024 conference in Westminster, Colo., was no exception. Among the discussions in presentation rooms and hallways, mention of 5 key tools for better health and performance came to light. They included:

Colostrum vessels – Dr. Geof Smith, technical services veterinarian with Zoetis, noted that colostrum collection often is not as hygienic as dairies’ standard milking procedures. This can set calves back from the get-to, if their first meal contains a heavy load of bacteria that detracts from its myriad benefits. Sanitation of the pails and containers used to collect, transport, and store colostrum is a must. In this briefing from Cornell University , one recommendation is to keep the catch bucket covered tightly, both before and after colostrum collection.
Navel dippers – Here’s another practice that can send the best of management intentions awry in hurry: dipping navels from newborn calves with dirty equipment. Introducing bacteria in this manner provides a direct contamination pathway to the calf’s bloodstream and internal organs in the critical first day of life. In this blog post from The Dairy Authority , Greeley, Colo., veterinarian Jared Schenkels noted that some of his clients avoid this acute error by foregoing reusable dippers and instead dipping navels with single-use paper cups.
Refractometers for total proteins – Smith noted that screening as few as 20 calves per month for serum total proteins can be highly valuable in monitoring colostrum delivery protocols and catching procedural drift. Elizabeth Marvel from Milk Specialties Global Animal Nutrition provides a detailed lesson on collecting a serum sample and testing it with an on-farm refractometer in this video .
Scales – You cannot improve what you don’t measure, according to Tom Tlyutki, Ag Modeling and Training Systems. Tlyutki said today’s mature Holsteins are bigger than ever – averaging about 1,900 pounds – and that pre-breeding heifer growth goals need to be updated and monitored to keep up, especially because heifers have a hard time growing after they become pregnant. “Buy a set of scales and use it,” advised Tlyutki. “You can get a decent one for a couple hundred bucks.”
Ammonia monitors – Air quality matters for calf health and performance, and more calf raisers are taking a page from the pork and poultry industries by monitoring the ammonia levels in their barns. The preferred brand mentioned was the Drager – manufactured in the United Kingdom -- which growers agreed delivers more reliable accuracy than less-expensive options.

For more on calf management, read:

Here's When Heat Stress Starts To Impact Calves

Tue, 14 May 2024 16:00:17 GMT

Heat stress is a widely recognized health and performance risk to dairy cattle that continues to gain the attention of researchers.

Dr. Jimena Laporta has studied heat stress for most of her academic career, first at the University of Florida, and now as Assistant Professor in lactation physiology at the University of Wisconsin.

But as much as we have learned about the far-reaching effects of heat stress in cows – and even the health and performance of their in utero offspring – what about calves?

Laporta recently told the audience of an I-29 Moo University webinar that conventional wisdom would dictate that calves are less bothered by heat and humidity than their adult counterparts. After all, they have a greater surface area relative to body mass, allowing them to dissipate heat more easily. They also have underdeveloped rumens and generate less metabolic heat.

But surprisingly, those factors don’t necessarily yield an advantage for calves when it comes to coping with heat. Similar to mature cattle, calves have a thermoneutral zone of about 50-72°F. In this range, they can maintain their body temperature without having to expend additional energy.

Conditions outside of this range, whether cold or hot, will cause calves to repartition energy to regulate their body temperature. “That energy is going to be taken away from growth and immune function,” Laporta explained.

She said the precise thermoneutral temperature for calves, and the threshold at which they are affected by heat stress, is dependent on a number of factors, including age and size of the calf; wind speed; ambient temperature, and relative humidity. The Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) takes humidity into account along with ambient temperature, making it a more accurate environmental predictor of heat stress.

A THI of 68 is used as the standard threshold for heat stress in adult dairy cows. But Laporta and her team wanted to set environmental and animal-based heat stress benchmarks specific to dairy calves. They did so by evaluating THI in relation to animal-based factors including skin temperature, rectal temperature, respiratory rate and heart rate.

Further, they evaluated calves being raised in both Florida and Wisconsin, to determine whether climate and environmental factors made a difference in calf heat-stress tolerance. Their findings:

In Florida, the THI at which calves showed abrupt changes in respiration was 65. For rectal temperature, it was 67.
In Wisconsin, the respiratory and rectal temperature breakpoints were both at a THI of 69.
Evaluating overall effect of THI, heat stress in calves was triggered at a THI of 65 in Florida and 69 in Wisconsin. This translates to surprisingly lower respiration of 30 and 40 breaths per minute, respectively.

So, in the 24/7 hot, humid environment of Florida, calves were actually more susceptible to environmental heat than adult cows, and began to show signs of stress at a lower THI. Given that heat-stressed calves eat less milk replacer and starter grain, and even have been shown to later have delayed conception and lower first-lactation milk production, Laporta said heat stress abatement is a probably a worthwhile investment. “This is a highly likely speculation based on the results we have seen so far,” she stated.

Laporta and her team are even researching methods of mechanically ventilating individual calf hutches using fans powered by solar panels. More than ever, both researchers and producers are realizing the long-term benefits of raising calves right.

“We are investing in our calves for life,” she declared. “Heat abatement should be one of those investments.”

For more on heat stress, read:

Why Traditional Techniques Still Work for Raising Heifers

Tue, 14 May 2024 13:00:25 GMT

Before he began managing a 14,000-head dairy heifer-growing yard, Erik Mohrlang worked in feeding management at a beef feedlot. As it turns out, many of the skills he learned in his first job have transferred handily to his current assignment.

As general manager of the custom-heifer-rearing division of Feldpausch Holsteins, Fort Morgan, Colo., Mohrlang is charged with raising heifers for 8 customers from 9 dairies based in Illinois, Michigan, New York, and Wisconsin. Most heifers arrive after weaning at approximately 300-400 pounds and are returned to their home dairies as springers.

Mohrlang said the cattle-management fundamentals that have transferred from feedlot work to dairy heifer care include:

Easy on arrival – When a new load of heifers arrives, they are provided plenty of dry, comfortable resting space and long-stem grass hay. TMR is gradually introduced as a top-dress. “Since we started feeding hay on arrival, we’ve cut about 2 weeks off of the transition to their full ration,” he noted. “After about a week, they’re ready to really take off and start eating.”
Coccidiosis prevention – Just like when he managed feedlot cattle, Mohrlang doses every animal with a Corid® drench treatment for coccidiosis on arrival. He said it’s an easy and affordable prevention tool that helps keep stressed heifers healthy and gaining. And he prefers the drench to dry coccidiostats because the dose is more accurately and completely delivered at a time when heifers aren’t eating well yet.
Salt blocks – A practice that Mohrlang called “an old rancher trick,” free-choice iodine salt blocks are available to heifers at all times. He believes the salt availability helps provide immune-system support and keeps one of his biggest disease challenges – pinkeye – at bay.
Lick tubs – Likewise, all heifers have access to “stress tubs” that contain molasses, vitamins, and minerals. Mohrlang believes the tubs provide worthy nutritional support, alleviate boredom, and keep animals from chewing on fencing and equipment. “I don’t have concrete proof that they work, but they are affordable, and they sure don’t hurt anything.”
Fly control – Mohrlang also learned in his previous life at the feedlot that a big part of fly control is eliminating vegetative roosting sites where flies can breed. The desert climate of Colorado results in little mud or standing water. So, by keeping weeds and grass mowed, the property stays tidy and fly populations low. “We even took some trees out, which is considered fairly sacrilegious around here, but that also has helped with fly control,” he said.

When asked about the stressors of hauling cattle such long distances, Mohrlang shared a unique anecdote that dictates his heifer-travel strategy. “I heard an animal behavior expert speak one time. She had done a lot of research on cattle that were hauled to and from Hawaii for up to 3 weeks in barge containers,” he recalled.

“Her results showed that the only time those cattle showed significant signs of stress were during loading and unloading,” Mohrlang continued. “So, we manage our transportation with those findings in mind. I would rather haul straight through and get them here sooner, versus stopping and unloading cattle to ‘rest.’ I truly believe they can have more rest and less stress if we get them to their destination faster, with no unloading and re-loading in between.”

Facility Focus: Five Strategies to Reduce Calf Heat Stress

Mon, 29 Apr 2024 13:39:37 GMT

Excessive heat can take a toll on every animal on the farm – especially the lactating herd. But one group that’s typically overlooked when it comes to heat stress are often the youngest members of the herd.

“When we think of the effects the environment has on calves, cold stress is often the more common concern, especially in more temperate climates. However, soaring summer temperatures, hot sun, and high humidity can cause heat stress in calves and heifers just as in the milking herd,” said Coleen Jones and Jud Heinrichs, a former research associate and professor emeritus of dairy nutrition, respectfully, at Pennsylvania State University.

While calves are often better at coping with heat compared to their adult counterparts, it’s important to know what methods help combat heat stress. As temperatures begin to creep their way higher, the duo recommends the following five strategies to help keep calves cool and healthy during the heat of the summer.

Provide Shade – Just like sitting under a tree during the heat of the day, shade provides relief from direct sunlight, helping to prevent overheating. Studies have shown providing shade reduces the temperature inside hutches and lowers calf body temperature and respiration rate. Consider installing shade cloth above outdoor hutches to calves combat the heat.

Keep Air Moving – Even a slight breeze can help make a stifling day more bearable. When air moves across the skin, it helps carry away the heat your body generates. The same can be said for calves. According to the duo, calf housing should be positioned to utilize prevailing winds and should incorporate as many openings as possible to take advantage of natural air movement. Air movement can be enhanced by opening vents on hutches and placing a block under the back wall.

Keep ‘em Hydrated – With increased temperatures comes increased respiration. In turn, this can cause calves to become dehydrated more quickly. To combat this, be sure to offer clean water to calves early on. In addition, water buckets also may need to be filled more frequently in the summer, particularly for calves nearing weaning and those who have recently been weaned.

Make Sure Grain Stays Fresh – According to Jones and Heinrichs, calves will naturally tend to eat less grain during periods of heat stress. To keep calves eating, consider offering only small handfuls of started at each feeding until calves begin to eat. Remove uneaten starter and clean out wet or moldy feed daily to maintain freshness. A divider between the grain bucket and water bucket can help keep starter fresh longer by limiting the amount of transfer between the two buckets.

Work Calves in the Morning – Throughout the summer, the early morning hours are typically the coolest part of the day. To help reduce heat stress for both calves and employees, the Jones and Heinrichs recommend completing strenuous tasks during the early hours of the day.

“As with other classes of cattle, it is wise to handle calves in the morning so that stressful activities, such as dehorning, vaccinations, pen moves, or transportation, can be completed when both calf body temperatures and environmental temperatures are at their lowest point for the day,” the duo state.

For more Facility Focus stories, read:

Fat Sources: The New Focus in Milk Replacers

Tue, 09 Apr 2024 20:18:52 GMT

A lot of different formulation strategies can be employed in manufacturing milk replacer. But it takes more than just balancing for total protein and fat content to create a milk replacer recipe that optimizes calf performance.

A recent study published in the Journal of Dairy Science summarized a feeding trial by an international team of researchers who specifically examined and compared the results of using three different milk replacer formulations with different fat sources.

The study was led by PhD candidate Juliette Wilms with Netherlands-based Trouw Nutrition, with collaboration from researchers at the University of Guelph, Wageningen University in the Netherlands, and the University of Bonn, Germany.

Three feeding groups of 21 newborn Holstein calves were started on three respective milk replacer formulations. All three milk replacer sources contained 30% fat, 24% crude protein, and 36% lactose on a dry-matter basis. But three different combinations of 2 feedstuffs each were used to satisfy the fat portion:

Vegetable – 80% rapeseed and 20% coconut oil;
Animal – 65% lard and 35% liquid dairy cream; and
Mixed – 80% lard and 20% coconut fat

All fat ingredients were spray-dried during the milk replacer production process.

In the preweaned period, calves were housed in pens of 9 calves each – 3 from each feeding group – with their respective liquid ration dispensed ad libitum through a single autofeeder. They had common access to free-choice starter feed, chopped straw, and water throughout the study. Weaning was gradually induced between 7 and 10 weeks of age.

Calves were weighed and blood collected weekly until 85 days after arrival. Drinking speed and visits to the milk replacer source were recorded by the autofeeder software. Health events were recorded by caretakers, who were not informed of individual calves’ assigned feeding groups.

Results included:

No difference between groups in the number of calves receiving therapeutic intervention for diarrhea and respiratory disease;
Calves fed the animal fat ration consumed a higher volume of milk replacer than the other two treatment groups.
Starter feed intake did not vary significantly between groups.
Preweaned metabolizable energy intake was higher in calves fed the animal fat ration than the other two groups.
Plasma fatty acid profiles closely matched the fat source in the liquid ration in weeks 4 and 8, but that differentiation disappeared by week 12 when calves were completely weaned.
The animal fat group had a significantly higher preweaning average daily gain (ADG) [915 g/day, or about 2.017 lb./day] compared to the other two groups, which averaged about 783 g/day, or 1.73 lb./day.

The researchers noted that animal fat treatment was developed to align closely with the fatty acid profile of milk. Including medium-chain fatty acids was an important objective, as these specific fatty acids are a rapidly available energy source that can influence satiety signaling in calves. Whole milk contains about 11% medium-chain fatty acids. The inclusion rate in this study was: vegetable ration – 22%; animal ration – 7%; and mixed ration – 12%.

They concluded the slower growth of calves in the vegetable fat group compared to the animal fat group was linked to a higher preweaning energy conversion ratio in the vegetable group (calculated by dividing the total daily metabolizable energy intake by ADG), indicating a lower feed efficiency.

Overall, the fatty acid profile of the mixed group was very similar to that of the animal group, except that the animal fat ration contained butyric and caproic acids. Previous studies have shown that supplementing calves with butyric acid has improved gastrointestinal tract development.

Finally, the researchers noted that the animal fat ration did not include 100% milk fat because that would defeat one of the main purposes of milk replacer, which is increasing the net dairy product yield of dairy farms. The study also did not take into account the cost difference between the rations, most notably the potentially higher cost of competing in the human food market for dairy cream/butterfat.

For more on Calf Health, read:

Five Steps to Calf Equipment Super-Sanitation

Mon, 08 Apr 2024 20:56:28 GMT

Dr. Don Sockett has seen his share of sick calves. He is also a super-sleuth at figuring out the causes of sickness, even in the most challenging on-farm cases.

A Veterinary Microbiologist and Epidemiologist with the University of Wisconsin Veterinary and Diagnostic Laboratory, Sockett shared his advice on The Dairy Signal webcast from the Professional Dairy Producers of Wisconsin. He said cleaning and sanitation of calf-feeding equipment is a primary management subset that really matters. When done well and consistently, it can go a long way toward preventing calves from becoming sick, and minimizing the spread of illness between calves.

“When I go out on farms, there are two things that I see frequently, right off the bat, that I would like to change about calf equipment maintenance,” shared Sockett. “One is that their soap for the initial wash isn’t strong enough. They use a product like Dove or Joy because it smells nice and it’s easy on their hands. But mild soaps like that have a pH of 10 or less, which doesn’t take care of stubborn pathogens like cryptosporidium and salmonella.”

The second factor is that scrub brushes used to wash calf-feeding equipment are not dried properly, and are not changed frequently enough. “You can’t wait for the bristles to start falling off before your replace your brush,” he advised.

His recommended steps for processing calf-feeding equipment are:

Rinse with lukewarm (90°F) water to remove milk residue and organic matter. This initial rinse water should not be hot, because you don’t want to denature the milk proteins and cause them to stick to the equipment surfaces, creating a build-up of bacteria-harboring biofilm.
Manually wash with a brush or clean-in-place (CIP) system for 2-3 minutes. Use hot water (>140°F) that contains chlorinated alkaline detergent (pH 11-12). This step emulsifies fats and solubilizes protein and carbohydrates so they can be released and washed away. It’s also the most crucial step by far, according to Sockett, because it breaks down biofilm.
Rinse with cold water, and then rinse a second time with cold water that contains an acid (pH 2-3) and 50 ppm solution of chlorine dioxide. The acid rinses away mineral deposits, and the chlorine dioxide serves as a disinfectant.
Dry thoroughly. This may be facilitated by building drying racks to hang equipment to promote air exposure.
Sanitize with a 50 ppm solution of chlorine dioxide within 2 hours of the next use. This can be done by rinsing or spraying equipment.

Sockett said the last point is important because it is impossible to destroy all pathogens. Those remaining can regrow in the 10-12 hours between calf feedings. In humid conditions he has seen bacterial regrowth overnight to levels as high as they were on the dirty equipment before it was cleaned and sanitized the night before.

He also advised routine audits of equipment by a third party such as the herd veterinarian, milk replacer supplier, dairy equipment representative, or other consultant. These checks are performed with an adenosine triphosphate (ATP) meter, which will measure bacteria load on equipment surfaces.

Another note on brushes: get one that is long enough to clean the entire length of the tube on esophageal feeders. Cleaning the tube from both ends with a too-short brush -- leaving a “dead” spot in the middle -- creates a perfect set-up for biofilm build-up, and directly introduces pathogens to your most vulnerable animals.

Finally, Sockett advised planning a regular replacement schedule for bottles, pails, and nipples as well. Small crack and fissures in plastic and rubber are perfect colonization sites for pathogens. Calf-feeding equipment is much easier to clean and sanitize if it is kept up-to-date and replaced before these factors become a problem.

Sockett said effective cleaning and sanitation protocols for calf-feeding equipment need not be complicated. Their implementation, along with periodic ATP checks for quality control, can become standard routines that set the calf operation up for long-term success.

“Equipment must be cleaned first, disinfected second,” he advised. “You cannot disinfect filth. One producer told me, ‘I was doing it wrong for so long, I thought I was doing it right.’”

For more on calf care, read:

Turns Out "Liquid Gold” May Not Be Gold At All

Tue, 26 Mar 2024 18:39:31 GMT

Colostrum has earned the unofficial moniker “liquid gold,” because of its typically golden color, along with the golden benefits it confers for calf health, growth, and lifetime performance.

But there’s a common misconception that colostrum’s gold color is indicative of its quality. That’s not necessarily the case, according to Hanne Skovsgaard Pedersen, a veterinarian, researcher, and calf specialist with Denmark-based ColoQuick .

“When I go out on farms, I often hear that we can evaluate colostrum by looking at its color and viscosity.” Pedersen stated on a recent colostrum webinar sponsored by AVA Group Inc. “But we’ve learned that there is not a very strong correlation between color, viscosity, and antibody concentration.”

Pedersen shared an example of three first-milking colostrum batches harvested the same morning on a single dairy. They ranged in appearance from thick and bright, golden yellow; to relatively thin and nearly white.

Evaluation for quality with a Brix refractometer yielded surprising results. The best sample? The thin, white batch, with a Brix reading of 27. The thick, yellow batch showed a Brix reading of 18, while the intermediate-appearing batch scored 21. In this example, true quality was actually the direct inverse of perceived quality by visual assessment alone.

In addition to measuring colostrum quality, Pedersen emphasized timely administration, explaining that the sieve-like permeations in the intestinal wall close rapidly in the hours after birth, so the time window in which antibodies can be distributed into the bloodstream is small.

Likewise, heavy bacteria loads can clog that distribution process, so hygienic harvest and handling of colostrum are also critical. Proper handling also helps to preserve the antibodies and bioactive compounds in colostrum, according to Pedersen.

Pasteurizing colostrum can help to ensure clean colostrum, but it also can be a cumbersome process. ColoQuick has developed a closed-loop system in which colostrum is pasteurized and frozen in the same liner bag that fits inside a sturdy, plastic cartridge. When a calf is born, the cartridge can be removed from the freezer, thawed for 20 minutes, and fed immediately to the calf – even before the dam is milked.

When her colostrum is harvested, it should be tested for quality, and – if it meets the dairy’s standards -- pasteurized and frozen via the same process. Upon use, the water bath unit spins the cartridge 360°, which allows for complete and uniform thawing of both the periphery and center of each dose of frozen colostrum. ColoQuick also offers nipple and esophageal feeder attachments, so colostrum can be fed directly from the bag.

For all of its merits, colostrum is only as valuable as the efforts invested in managing it. Pedersen said intentional colostrum management requires setting goals for hygienic harvest; quality, sorting, and delivery; well-defined management protocols; and ongoing data monitoring.

“Colostrum itself is not the main factor for success. Rather, it is the way you handle and process it,” she stated. “You can have the best colostrum on hand, but if it is not processed correctly, then the potential is lost.”

For more on calf health, read:

Who “Nose” When a Calf is Getting Sick?

Mon, 18 Mar 2024 16:58:32 GMT

If you observe a calf with a heavy cough or watery scours, you’ve probably already missed the window of opportunity to treat the disease effectively for a full recovery, according to Abbigail Prins, graduate student in Animal Science at the University of Minnesota.

Before she entered graduate school on a path to earning her master’s degree, Prins was responsible for thousands of preweaned calves on western calf ranches. Her #1 tip for identifying calves in the earliest stage of illness: “Check their nose temperature. If it feels cold, they’re getting sick,” she advised.

A more in-depth explanation by Jillian Bohlen, Associate Professor at the University of Georgia Department of Animal and Dairy Science, confirms Prins’ intuition. Bohlen said cold extremities – including the nose, ears, and hooves – are a sign that calves may have reduced circulation to the extremities, “which would be considered abnormal.” It’s an early signal that blood is being shunted away from the extremities to fight disease elsewhere in the body.

On a recent episode of the Dairy Nutritionist Blackbelt Podcast, Prins said she also relied on the following, early cues that calves were on the front side of illness:

Rectal temperature of 103°F or higher;
Sunken, recessed eyes, signaling dehydration;
“Skin tenting” test showing a slow return to flat status – another telltale sign of dehydration;
Slow drinking speed; and
Lethargy and disinterest in getting up to eat.

Cattle are a prey species, so they have natural instincts to not appear impaired or weak. That’s why observing subtle signs of early illness is so important.

“Cattle are generally good at hiding the early symptoms of disease, so careful observation by someone with experience with healthy and sick calves is necessary to identify calves that require further attention,” advised Bohlen. “Calves may also change their behavior if they know they are being watched, so frequent and consistent observations are important as part of the calf-care routine.”

For more on calf health, read:

Facility Focus: The Best Way to Better Manage Group Maternity Pens for Calmer Calvings

Fri, 01 Mar 2024 21:46:57 GMT

Maternity pens can often feel like a merry-go-round for dairy producers to manage. New calves are born then moved, cows and heifers are constantly being shuffled in and out, and farm employees are routinely checking in to monitor herd health. To put it simply, maternity pens are chaotic.

According to Emily Fread, extension educator at Pennsylvania State University, cow comfort should always be at the forefront of every producer’s mind, and the maternity pen is no exception. She notes that the best way to keep animals within the maternity pen calm and collected is by working to minimize stress and provide privacy. To do so, she recommends the following tips.

Plan Ahead

Every dairy producer has experienced a calving boom. These events can be described as a period when it seems like every cow on the farm calves at once. According to Fread, it’s important to not only design maternity pens to handle a typical calving month, but also a pen that can withstand these booms.

“It’s common for farms to experience swings in calving. For example, farms may have more cows calve in late spring or early summer because of reproductive troubles during heat stress. Because of this, calving areas should accommodate at least 120% of the regular calving rate,” she notes.

Minimize Movement

Group maternity pens are convenient for housing a large number of expectant cows at the same time. However, they don’t allow for much privacy, which can add unnecessary stress when an animal begins to calve. To minimize this, it may be necessary to move the cow to an individual pen for more peace and quiet, but it is important to do so in a timely manner.

“With group maternity pens, it is essential to minimize social stress as much as possible, as competition can occur in this setting,” Fread says. “Ideally, if a farm moves cows to a new pen for calving, this should be done before labor starts. Moving the animal during labor can extend labor time, which could increase the risk of dystocia.”

Cows have been shown to begin seeking privacy from herd mates around 4 hours before calving. Ideally, cows should be moved to an individual pen before labor begins. If an animal begins to calve beforehand, she should be moved during the early signs of labor. Moving cows once labor has started to progress delays calving and reduces lying time, increasing the risk of dystocia.

Manage Stocking Density

Overcrowded maternity pens can present a major problem when it comes to creating a calm calving environment. Too many animals can lead to increased levels of stress, poorer pen conditions and enhance the risk of injury to both the cow and newborn calf.

“Stocking density in the pre-fresh pen is very important,” Fread says. “Dry matter intake naturally decreases before calving, so it is essential to give cows adequate space at the feed bunk so feed intake does not fall even more. It is recommended that the feed bunk be stocked at 80% or less, meaning when every cow is eating, there should still be 20% of space left; this should equal about 0.76m per cow.”

In addition to providing adequate space, it’s important to also consider which animals are grouped together. According to Fread, it may be necessary to separate first calf heifers from older cows to create a calmer environment.

“Mixing heifers and cows in a close-up dry or maternity pen can cause unnecessary stress for the heifers,” Fread says. “One study showed that in mixed-group housing during the transition period, first lactation animals are displaced from the feed bunk more frequently. Separating heifers and cows for the entire transition period, meaning three weeks before and three weeks after calving, can help alleviate added stress for the heifers.”

Additional Tips

Though maternity pens can sometimes feel chaotic to manage, there are additional ways to help minimize stress and create a calmer calving environment for both cow and calf. Some of these tips include:

Utilizing technology, such as activity monitors or video cameras, to watch for signs of labor.
Minimize noise and foot-traffic disturbances.
Creating a secluded area within the group pen where a cow can feel more isolated from her penmates.
Have clear calving management protocols set in place.
Consulting with your farm’s veterinarian or calf consultant for design recommendations or advice on how to update facilities.

For more on facilities, read:

Four Steps Veterinarians Can Take To Help Producers Transition To Beef-On-Dairy

Wed, 28 Feb 2024 00:18:47 GMT

Of the 9.4 million dairy cows in the U.S., about one-third will have a calf that goes into the feedlot this year as part of the beef-on-dairy boon.

Looking ahead, CattleFax predicts U.S. beef-on-dairy cattle numbers will reach between 4 million and 5 million head – roughly 15% of the cattle harvested annually – as early as 2026.

“This program is growing, and it’s growing in importance for producers, veterinarians and the industry,” says Mitch Hockett, director of FarmFit Technologies for STgenetics.

Hockett believes the veterinarian’s role in helping dairy producers who want to make the move to a beef-on-dairy program will be integral to producers’ long-term success. He adds that the sexed-and-beef model of production, in particular, will be the rule and not the exception in the process.

“I want you to ask yourself, ‘What can I be doing to impact these programs?’ because the dairies need your help,” Hockett told veterinarians attending the 2024 AABP Recent Graduate Conference in Knoxville, Tenn.

How The Model Works

Sexed-and-beef focuses on reducing heifer inventories by using sexed semen on a producer’s best heifers and cows while optimizing returns in the remaining cows by using beef genetics to make a high-quality beef-cross animal.

Hockett says most dairy producers have farms that fit one of two scenarios.

Scenario One: Some farms want to maintain their current herd size and have a corresponding cull rate. Those farms need to plan their heifer matings to fulfill the needs to replace animals leaving the herd.

Scenario two: Some farms want to grow their cow herds. These are herds that can grow internally and optimize growth with planned matings.

“A lot of these farms are growing internally rather than going out on the open market and buying replacement heifers that they know nothing about and are a biosecurity issue to the farm,” Hockett says.

Knowing which of the two scenarios a farm is operating out of can help you work with producers to create a working framework for future decisions.

During his presentation, Hockett outlined four key steps and take-home messages veterinarians can use to guide producers’ decisions for beef-on-dairy production.

Step #1: Know each dairy farm’s needed heifer number.
Take-Home Message: Help producers make the right number of heifers and, in the process, stress health and reproduction programs that reduce the premature loss of heifers and cows.

Producers need to calculate the precise number of heifer calves that should be created each month on the farm, Hockett says. The process can be complicated, and he recommends partnering with a genetics company or other expert to determine and achieve the right number of heifers for each farm.

“All of the genetics companies have technical service teams that can help you do this. It’s a service we offer, and it provides information that can help you add consultative value to your customers,” he says.

Understand that missing the needed heifer mark can be costly. You don’t want the farm to under- or over-produce heifers. Both scenarios impact revenue.

Hockett adds that the dairy industry needs to work on reducing the non-completion rate of heifers.

“Most of the losses are coming from health or reproduction challenges or death,” he says.

Only 74% of heifer calving events today yield a heifer that enters the lactating herd (Overton and Dhuyvetter, 2020).

Factors keeping that percentage suppressed include things like:
• Stillbirth risk, which is about 5.7%
• Cull risk, which is about 10.2% by 13 months of age
• Reproduction failure risk, which occurs in about 6.8% in breeding heifers
• Culling risk, roughly 6.4% in pregnant heifers

Step #2: Make the right matings to generate the number of heifers required by the farm.
Take-Home Message: Maximize genetic progress and herd health by choosing top genetics for replacement creation.

“We can beat our head against the wall, trying to develop programs that lead to success, but if the genetics aren’t there to achieve that, you’re not going to end up making as much of an impact as you could if you had a more holistic view that included eliminating all the negative genetic traits that affect fertility,” Hockett says.

To accomplish the right matings, producers need to achieve the highest-value pregnancies. That’s no small task and involves:

• identifying top animals in the herd to maximize genetic progress in heifer creation and drive profitability.

• eliminating negative traits from the herd, and

• creating high-value beef calves.

“The average cost to raise a heifer now is in the neighborhood of $2,000 to $4,000, depending on what is included in the cost calculation and the country under consideration,” he says. “Because of those costs, it’s more important than ever that producers target matings that drive profits.”

Hockett says if generational genetic progress is being made, heifers tend to be the most elite genetic animals on the dairy farm, and they happen to be the most fertile as well.

“Using sexed semen in those animals gives you a higher return on investment,” he says.

He adds that some producers do genomic testing of their full herd, and the resulting information helps them choose the best animals, whether heifer or first-lactation or second-lactation cows, to receive sexed semen.

“That will speed genetic progress, but it can be a really difficult process to manage,” he says. “The labor on the farm has to be elite to really make sure that they’re using that semen in the right place.”

Hockett says a breeding plan can help technicians on the farm know what to do when they pull an animal for insemination, whether it gets sexed semen or beef semen.

Step #3: Choose the right semen product to drive farms’ short- and long-term goals for profit.
Take-Home Message: Use sex-sorted semen that optimizes genetic improvement, health, fertility and heifer ratio to reduce costs and expand beef-x-dairy revenues.

Hockett recommends identifying the top 40% or so animals in the herd to receive sexed semen. The remaining 60% should get beef semen.

Semen purity is an important part of determining the number of heifer matings to make.

“Semen purity is the percentage of desired sex of calves that result from offspring born from those inseminations,” he says. “All sexed semen is not the same. Different products can have different fertility and different purity. Using a higher purity product leads to a higher ratio of resulting heifers, less need for sexed semen inseminations and expands the number of beef matings one can make.”

Producers can purchase semen that is either female- or male-gender sorted semen. For example, an 88% pure semen for heifer ratio means producers using that semen in their cows can expect 88 heifers and 12 bulls.

Using genomics information to select top sires and then utilizing this on the top genetics of the herd will speed genetic progress.

“An added benefit of genomic testing is that it can help you identify individuals that have inherited genes that result in abortions or poor health. If you identify heifers with those undesirable haplotypes, breed them to beef to eliminate those genetics from the herd,” he says. “You should also look at the genomic results for sires you are considering to ensure you are not bringing negative mutations into the herd.”

Step No. 4. Recognize and harness those things that bring value to the beef sire selected.
Take-Home Message: Maximize the value of beef-x-dairy profit by using sires that stress fertility, price, growth, efficiency and yield.

Everyone in the production chain has his or her own view on what makes a beef sire desirable, and it varies from the dairyman to the calf ranch to the backgrounder or feedlot.

Dairy producers want a cow to get pregnant, so fertility is the trait they value most. Further down the production chain, people are looking for calves with improved feed efficiency and growth.

Old Inventory Is Gone

One misconception Hockett wants to put to rest is the idea that using beef sires will compromise conception rates. That’s not the case.

“Research shows that similar conception rates in Holstein dairy cows are found whether Angus or Holstein sires are used (McWhorter et al., 2020),” he says.

When beef-x-dairy came on the scene, the demand for beef semen went through the roof. Old bulls were not the problem as much as old inventory, he suspects.

That old inventory is long gone, and now most genetics companies struggle to keep up with demand.

“Genetics companies aren’t incentivized to keep millions of straws of beef semen in inventory. We’ve got to keep our inventories low, just like you all do,” he says.

Sidestep Discounts

One thing to discuss with producers is the calf-market discounts that are in the marketplace for various breeds, including Charolais, Limousin and Wagyu. In addition, heifers are routinely discounted $24.50 per hundredweight currently, he says.

“The feed conversion rate definitely supports more favorable cost of gain on the steer side than a heifer,” he says.

Hockett says veterinarians can help producers establish the value of beef-on-dairy calves and continue that long-term in the industry.

“So when the beef herd comes back, which it should, we want to continue to see that there’s value in these beef-dairy cross calves, because the revenues from them have become very important to your clients,” he says.

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